https://www.vedantu.com/syllabus/cbse-class-12-physics-syllabus

Electrostatics deals with electric charges at rest and the forces, fields, and potentials associated with them. It's the foundation for many other concepts in physics.

The formula is:
F = k * |q1 * q2| / r^2

Where:
* F is the electrostatic force.
* q1 and q2 are the magnitudes of the charges.
* r is the distance between the charges.
* k is Coulomb's constant, approximately 9 x 10^9 N m^2/C^2.
* The force is repulsive if q1 and q2 have the same sign, and attractive if they have opposite signs. The formula only gives magnitude; remember direction.

Potential Difference (Voltage) is the "push" or "pressure" that makes current flow. Measured in Volts (V). It's the energy difference per unit charge between two points.

Resistance is the opposition to the flow of current. Measured in Ohms (Ω). Think of a narrow or rough pipe slowing down water flow.

Ohm's Law: This fundamental law connects these three: V = IR. If you know any two, you can find the third.

Electromagnetic Induction is all about generating an electric current (or electromotive force, EMF) by changing a magnetic field.

Magnetic Flux ($\Phi_B$): Think of magnetic flux as the number of magnetic field lines passing through a given area. If magnetic field B passes through an area A at an angle $\theta$ to the area's normal, then $\Phi_B = \text{BA cos}\theta$. The unit for magnetic flux is Weber (Wb).

Optics is broadly divided into two main branches: Ray Optics (or Geometrical Optics) and Wave Optics (or Physical Optics). Ray optics treats light as rays traveling in straight lines, which is great for understanding mirrors and lenses. Wave optics views light as electromagnetic waves, explaining phenomena like interference and diffraction.

When light hits a boundary between two different media (like air and water), it can either bounce back (reflection) or pass through and bend (refraction).

For a long time, scientists debated whether light was a wave or a particle. Eventually, experiments showed it's both! This is the "dual nature" of radiation. Louis de Broglie then proposed that matter (like electrons, protons, even planets) also has this dual nature.

You've probably heard of wavelength (λ) and frequency (ν) associated with waves. Light, as an electromagnetic wave, travels at the speed of light, c.
- Interference and Diffraction: These phenomena (like light bending around corners or creating patterns when passing through tiny slits) are best explained by light behaving as a wave.